This page is a complete reference of English grammar rules, organised in three pillars: Grammar Basics (parts of speech and foundational concepts), Syntax Rules (how words and clauses combine into sentences — the core of CEFR grammar), and Mechanics (writing conventions including punctuation and capitalisation).
Rules in the Syntax section are marked with their CEFR level so you can focus on what matters most at your stage. Each rule links to a dedicated explanation page with examples and free practice exercises.
Grammar basics covers the parts of speech — the categories every English word belongs to. Understanding what a noun, verb, or adjective is is the foundation for all the syntax rules below. This section is targeted at A1–A2 learners and anyone who wants to revisit the fundamentals.
Parts of Speech
Foundational Concepts
Note: Articles and Prepositions are classified as parts of speech here, but their usage rules are covered in depth under Syntax Rules.
Syntax rules govern how sentences are built — which verb tense to use, how to form a conditional, when to add a relative clause. Rules are marked with their CEFR level: A2 covers everyday structures, B1 introduces more complex forms, and B2 adds advanced and mixed structures.
English verb tenses place actions in time and describe how complete or ongoing they are. A2 learners start with the simple and continuous forms used in everyday speech. B1 learners add perfect tenses that connect past and present. B2 learners work with the most complex combinations: perfect continuous and future perfect forms.
English articles — the, a/an, and the zero article — tell listeners whether a noun is specific or general, known or unknown, countable or uncountable. Correct article use is one of the most common difficulties for speakers of languages that do not have articles.
Prepositions show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence. Prepositions of time (in, on, at) and place are taught first; prepositions of movement and fixed prepositional phrases are introduced at B1–B2 level.
Conditional sentences express the relationship between a condition and its result. English has four main conditional types, each using a different combination of tenses to show whether the situation is real, hypothetical, or impossible. Mixed conditionals combine elements of different types to describe situations where the time frame of the condition and result differ.
A relative clause is a subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun (who, which, that, whose, where) that gives more information about a noun. Defining relative clauses identify which specific person or thing is being referred to. Non-defining relative clauses add extra information and are always separated by commas.
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express a speaker's attitude about an action: whether it is possible, necessary, permitted, or recommended. Perfect modal forms (should have, could have) use a modal plus have plus a past participle to talk about past possibilities and obligations.
Sentence Structure
Mechanics covers the conventions of written English — the rules for punctuating sentences, capitalising words, spelling contractions, and representing numbers and abbreviations correctly. While grammar errors affect meaning, mechanics errors affect clarity and formality. Mechanics is especially important for IELTS and academic writing at B2–C1 level.
Writing Conventions
Punctuation
Frequently Asked Questions
Free gap-fill and multiple-choice exercises for every syntax rule — filtered by topic and CEFR level. No sign-up required.