Modal Perfect: Could / Might / May Have Nuance (C2)

Your task

Fill in the gap in each sentence with the correct word or phrase.

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Keep practising! Focus on the explanations below.

You me for help with the report — I had the entire weekend free. (ask)

Correct answer: could have asked

A past opportunity that wasn't taken, with the speaker noting their own availability → "could have asked". "May have asked" / "might have asked" would mean "perhaps you did", which contradicts the speaker's implication that you didn't.

I'm not entirely sure of the chronology, but Sara the new policy with Legal before signing off. (discuss)

Correct answer: may have discussed

Genuine uncertainty about whether the past action took place → "may have discussed" (slightly more formal) or "might have discussed". "Could have discussed" would shift to capability, not actual likelihood.

In a different political era, a scandal of this scale down an entire government. (bring)

Correct answer: could have brought

A historical capability claim ("in a different era") → "could have brought" (capability in possible past) or "might have brought" (hedged outcome).

The witness about the precise time of the call, but the rest of her testimony was internally consistent. (be confuse)

Correct answer: may have been confused

A formal, hedged epistemic claim → "may have been confused" (preferred in legal/written register) or "might have been confused".

She turned the role down without negotiating — she the salary upwards quite easily. (push)

Correct answer: could have pushed

A past opportunity she chose not to take → "could have pushed". "May/might have pushed" would mean "perhaps she did", which the sentence rules out.

He hasn't replied to either of my messages — he his phone for the cinema. (silence)

Correct answer: might have silenced

A tentative guess at why he hasn't replied → "might have silenced" / "may have silenced". "Could have silenced" implies an opportunity not taken, which doesn't fit.

You me you were running an hour late — I'd still be waiting at the restaurant otherwise. (text)

Correct answer: could have texted

A clear missed opportunity that the speaker is mildly reproaching → "could have texted". "May/might have texted" would imply "perhaps you did", contradicting the reproach.

The discrepancy in the year-end figures from a single typographical error on page three of the schedule. (arise)

Correct answer: may have arisen

A formal, written-register hedged explanation → "may have arisen" or "might have arisen". "Could have arisen" would shift to possibility-in-principle, not actual cause.

Only someone with current admin credentials that account at 3 a.m. on a Sunday. (access)

Correct answer: could have accessed

A capability claim about a hypothetical past actor → "could have accessed". "May/might have accessed" would only weakly speculate, missing the "only…with credentials" capability filter.

I'm sure I left the folder on my desk last night — the cleaners it when they came through. (move)

Correct answer: might have moved

A tentative guess at where the folder went → "might have moved" / "may have moved". "Could have moved" would emphasise capability rather than this actual-but-uncertain reading.

Why didn't you mention you were heading to the airport? I you to the station along the way. (drive)

Correct answer: could have driven

A past opportunity not taken because of missing information → "could have driven". "May/might have driven" would mean "perhaps I did", contradicting the offer-in-retrospect frame.

The strategy committee the political risks attached to the original proposal. (underestimate)

Correct answer: may have underestimated

A formal, hedged critique that stops short of asserting the fact → "may have underestimated" (slightly more formal) or "might have underestimated". "Could have" would shift to capability/opportunity.

With even modest additional funding in 2023, the project two full years ahead of where it is now. (be)

Correct answer: could have been

A counterfactual past capability claim ("with funding") → "could have been". "May/might have been" would express speculative possibility, but the construction sets up a clear capability-not-realised reading.

The hard drive has started making an unfamiliar clicking noise — it during the office move yesterday. (be damage)

Correct answer: might have been damaged

A tentative past cause for a present symptom → passive epistemic "might have been damaged" / "may have been damaged". "Could have been damaged" would emphasise the bare possibility rather than this specific past event.

Any competent building inspector those structural defects from the basement alone, without going upstairs at all. (identify)

Correct answer: could have identified

A capability claim about a hypothetical competent actor → "could have identified". "May/might have identified" would only speculate weakly, missing the "any competent X" capability frame.

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